LESSONS FROM PANDEMICS: RESILIENCE AND RECOVERY STRATEGIES IN THE WAKE OF COVID-19
Keywords:
Pandemic, COVID-19, Resilience, Recovery, Public Health PolicyAbstract
The COVID-19 pandemic precipitated unprecedented global challenges, exposing vulnerabilities in healthcare systems and necessitating a re-evaluation of pandemic preparedness and response strategies. This review article examines the diverse approaches employed by nations across varying levels of development – developed, developing, and less developed – to mitigate the impacts of COVID-19 and facilitate recovery. By comparatively analyzing policy interventions, healthcare resource allocation, community engagement initiatives, and technological adaptations, this study identifies key lessons learned for enhancing resilience in future pandemics. Findings reveal that effective pandemic response necessitates robust healthcare infrastructure, decisive leadership characterized by transparency and community engagement, equitable access to resources, and the strategic integration of technology. Furthermore, fostering international collaboration and addressing social determinants of health are crucial for building resilient systems. The analysis underscores the importance of adaptable and context-specific strategies tailored to each nation's unique socioeconomic environment. The lessons gleaned from COVID-19 offer a roadmap for policymakers to strengthen pandemic preparedness, promote health equity, and enhance global health security, ensuring a more resilient and equitable response to future health crises. The study emphasizes the need for proactive measures that prioritize community wellbeing and global cooperation to face future health challenges effectively.
Downloads
References
Achangwa, C., Ryu, S., Jung, J., & Hwang, S. (2023). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on chlamydia infection in South Korea: A comparison between the pre-pandemic and during-pandemic periods. Frontiers in Public Health, 11, 116732.
Adini, B., & Kimhi, S. (2023). Perspective: Lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic concerning the resilience of the population. Israel Journal of Health Policy Research, 12(1), 19.
Alawi, M., Chu, D., & Rui, Y. (2024). Measuring and improving public space resilience to the COVID-19 pandemic: Chongqing, China as a case study. Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, 6, 1383933.
Alfieri, N., Kusma, J., Heard‐Garris, N., Davis, M., Golbeck, E., Barrera, L., & Macy, M. (2021). Parental COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy for children: Vulnerability in an urban hotspot. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 1662.
Alhindi, Y., Habib, A., Alhusini, R., Bahha, A., Alqurashi, A., Almatani, R., & Alkhayat, T. (2023). Beliefs about the use of herbs before and after COVID-19: A cross-sectional study in Saudi Arabia. Cureus, 15(11), e49624.
Alzahrani, A., Alshehri, W., Alghamdi, F., Almalki, A., Alzaidi, K., Alsulaimani, H., & Almalki, S. (2024). The impact of COVID-19 vaccine controversy on parents’ perceptions of routine vaccinations. Cureus, 16(7), e63606.
Aminullah, E., Erman, E., & Soesilo, T. (2023). Simulation of the COVID-19 handling policy in Indonesia. Journal of Public Health in Africa, 14(5), 5.
Arslan, G., & Yıldırım, M. (2021). A longitudinal examination of the association between meaning in life, resilience, and mental well-being in times of coronavirus pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 645597
Azevedo, D., Plácido, A., Herdeiro, M., Roque, F., & Roque, V. (2022). How Portuguese health entities used social media to face the public health emergency during COVID-19 disease. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(19), 11942.
Baboukardos, D., Gaia, S., & She, C. (2021). Social performance and social media activity in times of pandemic: Evidence from COVID-19-related Twitter activity. Corporate Governance, 21(6), 1271-1289.
Backhaus, I., Sisenop, F., Begotaraj, E., Jevtić, M., Marchini, S., Morganti, A., & Lindert, J. (2023). Coping with the mental health impact of COVID–19: A study protocol for a multinational longitudinal study on coping and resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLOS One, 18(5), e0285803.
Bacon, S., Lavoie, K., Boyle, J., Stojanovic, J., & Joyal‐Desmarais, K. (2021). International assessment of the link between COVID-19 related attitudes, concerns and behaviours in relation to public health policies: Optimising policy strategies to improve health, economic and quality of life outcomes (the iCare study). BMJ Open, 11(3), e046127.
Bártlová, S., Hellerová, V., Dolák, F., & Chloubová, I. (2024). Nurses’ views and experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nursing in the 21st Century, 23(2), 106-110.
Basu, A., Kuziemsky, C., Novaes, M., Kleber, A., Sales, F., Al-Shorbaji, N., & Udayasankaran, J. (2021). Telehealth and the COVID-19 pandemic: International perspectives and a health systems framework for telehealth implementation to support critical response. Yearbook of Medical Informatics, 30(1), 126-133.
Beck, A., Kampman, M., Huynh, C., Simon, C., Plueschke, K., Cohet, C., & Arlett, P. (2024). Collaborative real‐world evidence among regulators: Lessons and perspectives. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 117(2), 368-373.
Boby, P., Dewan, P., & Sugga, P. (2022). A review of post pandemic healthcare design. The Evolving Scholar. https://doi.org/10.24404/620f68305d583d481a24ddbf
Böhret, I. (2020). Why responses to public health emergencies need to incorporate a broader understanding of culture. Cross-Cultural Human Rights Review, 2(2-3), 5.
Buscetta, A., Abdallah, K., Floyd, K., Wossenseged, F., Conn, C., Ramirez, H., & Bonham, V. (2022). Examining resilience of individuals living with sickle cell disease in the COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Psychology, 10(1), 156.
Busic‐Sontic, A., & Schubert, R. (2023). Social resilience indicators for pandemic crises. Disasters, 48(2), e12610.
Buzelli, M., & Boyce, T. (2021). The privatization of the Italian national health system and its impact on health emergency preparedness and response: The COVID-19 case. International Journal of Health Services, 51(4), 501-508.
Bwerinofa, I., Mahenehene, J., Manaka, M., Mulotshwa, B., Murimbarimba, F., Mutoko, M., & Scoones, I. (2022). What is ‘community resilience’? Responding to COVID-19 in rural Zimbabwe. BMJ Global Health, 7(9), e009528.
Cherian, A., & Natarajamurthy, P. (2024). Rethinking tourism post-COVID: A public health perspective. South Eastern European Journal of Public Health, 24, 66-69.
Choi, K., Nishimi, K., Jha, S., Sampson, L., Hahn, J., Kang, J., & Kubzansky, L. (2022). Pre-pandemic resilience to trauma and mental health outcomes during COVID-19. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 58(3), 453-465.
Deguma, M., Lumayag, C., Villaganas, M., Reyes, N., & Deguma, J. (2021). From anxious loneliness to meditation: a mental health self-care strategy to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Public Health, 44(3), e402-e403.
Dewanti, R., Paryanto, E., Rahayu, W., & Rachmadhan, A. (2024). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on staple food prices in Semarang. IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science, 1364(1), 012044.
Djukic, M., Pine, R., Short, Y., Jackson, J., McVey, C., & Cline, D. (2025). New graduate nurses’ transition to practice during the COVID-19 pandemic: Voices of clinical nurse educators from the front lines. Sage Open Nursing, 11, 1-5.
Earnshaw, V., Eaton, L., Kalichman, S., Brousseau, N., Hill, E., & Fox, A. (2020). COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs, health behaviors, and policy support. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 10(4), 850-856.
Fawcett, S., Holt, C., Solar-Hormazabal, O., Eijkemans, G., Partridge, D., Jordan, S., & Hill, E. (2023). Equity lens protocol: Reflecting on harms from the COVID-19 response and mitigation strategies implemented in a local public health system. Health Promotion Practice, 25(4), 526-530.
Gao, J., Gallegos, G., & West, J. (2023). Public health policy, political ideology, and public emotion related to COVID-19 in the U.S. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(21), 6993.
Gianella, C., Cortez, L., Beran, D., & Pesantes, M. (2024). Ensuring sexual and reproductive healthcare services amidst a pandemic: experiences from health workers in Lima, Peru. PLOS Global Public Health, 4(6), e0003187.
Gietaneh, W., Simieneh, M., Endalew, B., Tarekegn, S., Petrucka, P., & Eyayu, D. (2023). Traditional healers’ roles, and the challenges they face in the prevention and control of local disease outbreaks and pandemics: The case of the East Gojjam Zone in northwestern Ethiopia. Frontiers in Tropical Diseases, 4, 978528.
Greer, S., Jarman, H., Falkenbach, M., Fonseca, E., Raj, M., & King, E. (2021). Social policy as an integral component of pandemic response: Learning from COVID-19 in Brazil, Germany, India, and the United States. Global Public Health, 16(8-9), 1209-1222.
Greer, S., King, E., Fonseca, E., & Peralta‐Santos, A. (2020). The comparative politics of COVID-19: The need to understand government responses. Global Public Health, 15(9), 1413-1416.
Hafiz, H., Oei, S., Ring, D., & Shnitser, N. (2020). Regulating in pandemic: evaluating economic and financial policy responses to the coronavirus crisis. (Boston College Law School Legal Studies Research Paper No. 527). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3555980
Harada, N., Kuzmichev, A., & Dean, H. (2023). COVID-19 response of the Journal Public Health Reports (PHR), March 2020-March 2023. Public Health Reports, 139(2), 154-162.
Hashim, H., Rassoul, A., Bchara, J., Ahmadi, A., & Lucero‐Prisno, D. (2022). COVID-19 denial in Turkmenistan veiling the real situation. Archives of Public Health, 80(1), 8.
Houghtaling, B., Haynes‐Maslow, L., Andress, L., Hardison‐Moody, A., Grocke-Dewey, M., Holston, D., & Shanks, C. (2023). Food insecurity among households with children during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Agriculture Food Systems and Community Development, 12(3), 225-237.
Irfan, F., Minetti, R., Telford, B., Ahmed, F., Syed, A., Hollon, N., & Brusselaers, N. (2022). Coronavirus pandemic in the Nordic countries: Health policy and economic trade-off. Journal of Global Health, 12, 05017.
Ismael, S., Mustafa, S., & Abdullah, B. (2024). Relation between the pandemic COVID-19 and the outbreak of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever in Iraq, 2023. Journal of Contemporary Medical Sciences, 10(2), 98-101.
Jabeen, M., Shahjahan, M., & Farid, G. (2022). Information dissemination during COVID-19 pandemic among postgraduate allied health sciences students in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Medical & Health Sciences, 16(11), 366-370.
Jalil, M., Ali, A., Ahmed, Z., & Kamarulzaman, R. (2021). The mediating effect of coping strategies between psychological capital and small tourism organization resilience: insights from the COVID-19 pandemic, Malaysia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 766528.
Jalloh, M., Zeebari, Z., Nur, S., Prybylski, D., Nur, A., Hakim, A., & Nordenstedt, H. (2022). Drivers of COVID-19 policy stringency in 175 countries and territories: COVID-19 cases and deaths, gross domestic products per capita, and health expenditures. Journal of Global Health, 12, 05049.
Jee, Y. (2020). Interim evaluation of South Korea’s response to COVID-19 and preparation for a post- COVID-19 world in public health. The Korean Journal of Policy Studies, 35(3), 169-190.
Joseph, J., & Juncos, A. (2023). Conceptual politics and resilience-at-work in the European Union. Review of International Studies, 50(2), 373-392.
Joyce, A., Risely, E., Green, C., Carey, G., & Buick, F. (2023). What can public health administration learn from the decision-making processes during COVID-19?. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21(1), 4.
Kamga, L., Voordouw, A., Vries, M., Belfroid, E., Brabers, A., Jong, J., & Timen, A. (2024). The Dutch citizens' understanding and perception of the actors involved in the Netherlands' COVID-19 pandemic response: A focus group study during the first pandemic wave. Health Expectations, 27(5), e14170.
Ke, D. and Chen, W. (2022). Comparative study on residents' health-promoting lifestyle and life satisfaction in Wuhan before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 820499.
Khadijah, S., Wiyono, B., Rasyad, A., & Sobri, A. (2023). Replacing face-to-face with online meetings: public and private university students’ satisfaction on academic advising during COVID-19 pandemic. Pegegog, 14(1), 270-283.
Kiely, S., Parisi, S., Farley, H., & Ripp, J. (2022). Lessons from the northeast COVID-19 surge: well-being of the health care workforce. American Journal of Medical Quality, 38(1), 57-62.
Kirkland, C., Oldfield-Tabbert, K., Karnik, H., Orr, J., Martin, S., & Leider, J. (2022). Public health workforce gaps, impacts, and improvement strategies from COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(20), 13084.
Klimczuk, A., Berde, É., Dovie, D., Klimczuk-Kochanska, M., & Spinelli, G. (2022). Editorial: coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Socio-economic systems in the post-pandemic world: Design thinking, strategic planning, management, and public policy. Frontiers in Communication, 7, 1034562.
Kodali, P. (2023). Achieving universal health coverage in low- and middle-income countries: challenges for policy post-pandemic and beyond. Risk Management and Healthcare Policy, 16, 607-621.
Lawal, O. (2022). COVID-19 risks and systemic gaps in Nigeria: Resilience building lessons for pandemic and climate change management. SN Social Sciences, 2(11), 247.
Lee, G., Clough, O., Hayter, E., Morris, J., Ashdown, T., Hardman, J., & Anakwe, R. (2021). Embracing virtual outpatient clinics in the era of COVID-19. Bone & Joint Open, 2(5), 301-304.
Louis, E., Eugene, D., Ingabire, W., Isano, S., & Blanc, J. (2022). Rwanda's resiliency during the coronavirus disease pandemic. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 589526.
Mac-Seing, M., & Ruggiero, E. (2024). The intersections of COVID-19 global health governance and population health priorities: Equity-related lessons learned from Canada and selected G20 countries. Public Health Reviews, 45, 1606052.
Manganello, J., Penta, S., & Whalen, E. (2021). Pandemic communication: Challenges and opportunities for local health departments. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 28(1), 6-9.
Marcassoli, A., Leonardi, M., Passavanti, M., Angelis, V., Bentivegna, E., Martelletti, P., & Raggi, A. (2023). Lessons learned from the lessons learned in public health during the first years of COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(3), 1785.
Mason, C., Lazenby, S., Stuhldreher, R., Kimball, M., & Bartlein, R. (2022). Lessons learned from implementing digital health tools to address COVID-19 in LMICS. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 859941.
McCarty, S., Pacqué, K., Gatto, A., Hill, K., & Charak, R. (2022). Youth-led resilience promotion during disaster recovery: A proposed framework, innovative program, and lessons learned. Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy, 14(S1), S32-S40.
McCormack, W., Bredella, M., Ingbar, D., Jackson, R., Meagher, E., Morris, C., & McIntosh, S. (2020). Immediate impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on CTSA TL1 and KL2 training and career development. Journal of Clinical and Translational Science, 4(6), 556-561.
McGinley, H., Hancock, W., Kern-Allely, S., Jenssen, M., Chutaro, E., Camacho, J., & Brostrom, R. (2023). COVID-19 in the us-affiliated pacific islands: a timeline of events and lessons learned from March 2020-November 2022. PLOS Global Public Health, 3(8), e0002052.
Menap, M., Harmaen, H., & Sastrawan, S. (2021). Quality of health services before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in public health center. Prisma Sains Jurnal Pengkajian Ilmu Dan Pembelajaran Matematika Dan Ipa Ikip Mataram, 9(2), 225.
Mensah, I., Khan, M., Liang, J., Zhu, N., Lin, L., & Mwakapesa, D. (2023). The moderating influence of perceived government information transparency on COVID-19 pandemic information adoption on social media systems. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1172094.
Mitchell, N., McCauley, M., O’Brien, D., & Wilson, C. (2022). Mental health and resilience in the Irish Defense Forces during the COVID-19 global pandemic. Military Psychology, 35(5), 383-393.
Morgan, G., Poland, B., Jackson, S., Gloger, A., Luca, S., Lach, N., & Rolston, I. (2021). A connected community response to COVID-19 in Toronto. Global Health Promotion, 29(1), 101-104.
Mrigpuri, P., Gupta, A., Jha, R., Singla, P., & Singla, R. (2021). Tobacco use, tuberculosis and COVID-19: A lethal triad. Indian Journal of Tuberculosis, 68, S86-S88.
Nawyn, S., Karaoğlu, E., Gasteyer, S., Mansour, R., Ghassani, A., & Marquart‐Pyatt, S. (2022). Resilience to nested crises: The effects of the Beirut explosion on COVID-19 safety protocol adherence during humanitarian assistance to refugees. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 870158.
Nieuwborg, A., Mastrigt, S., Melles, M., Zekveld, J., & Santema, S. (2023). A categorization of resilience: A scoping review. Administrative Sciences, 13(4), 95.
Novato, V., Toscano, C., Ferreira, V., & Patel, S. (2024). A systematic review of public policy implementation during the COVID-19 pandemic: Current topics and future directions. Review of Policy Research, 42(2), 346-370.
Nwakasi, C., Esiaka, D., Uchendu, I., & Bosun-Arije, F. (2022). Factors influencing compliance with public health directives and support for the government's actions against COVID-19: A Nigerian case study. Scientific African, 15, e01089.
Nyasulu, J., & Nyondo‐Mipando, A. (2023). Politics and implications on the COVID-19 health systems preparedness: The Malawian experience. Journal of Public Health in Africa, 14(12), 4.
O’Connor, E., O’Riordan, M., Morrissey, M., Dever, N., O’Mahony, C., Romanowski, S., & Boland, M. (2023). A methodological approach to intra-action reviews - application and adaptation of existing global guidance during the COVID-19 pandemic response in Ireland, 2021. Eurosurveillance, 28(13), 2200475.
Owolabi, O., Olatoye, F., Elufioye, O., & Okunade, B. (2024). Healthcare management in a post-pandemic world: lessons learned and future preparedness: A review. International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 11(1), 1843-1852.
Pahomii, I. (2023). Changes in mortality during the COVID-19 pandemic in Moldova. Economy and Sociology, (2), 63-72.
Pang, P., Jiang, W., Pu, G., Chan, K., & Lau, Y. (2022). Social media engagement in two governmental schemes during the COVID-19 pandemic in Macao. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(15), 8976.
Parlak, S., Tunç, E., Eryiğit, D., & Uluman, M. (2022). Relationships between hostility, resilience and intolerance of uncertainty: A structural equation modeling. Journal of Evidence-Based Psychotherapies, 22(1), 3-20.
Pennisi, F., Genovese, C., & Gianfredi, V. (2024). Lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic: Promoting vaccination and public health resilience, a narrative review. Vaccines, 12(8), 891.
Raoufi, M., & Fayek, A. (2022). New modes of operating for construction organizations during the COVID-19 pandemic: Challenges, actions, and future best practices. Journal of Management in Engineering, 38(2). https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)me.1943-5479.0001009
Ravenhall, S., Levy, N., Simpson, K., Fleming, M., Arana, M., DiManno, P., & Murrman, M. (2021). New York State Local Health Department preparedness for and response to the COVID-19 Pandemic: An in-progress review. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 27(3), 240-245.
Sabbaghi, M., Namazinia, M., & Miri, K. (2023). Time indices of pre-hospital EMS missions before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study in Iran. BMC Emergency Medicine, 23(1), 9.
Savanevičienė, A., Radvila, G., & Šilingienė, V. (2021). Structural changes of organizational maturity during the COVID-19 pandemic: The case of Lithuania. Sustainability, 13(24), 13978.
Semenza, J., Adlhoch, C., Baka, A., Broberg, E., Cenciarelli, O., Angelis, S., & Penttinen, P. (2021). COVID-19 research priorities for non-pharmaceutical public health and social measures. Epidemiology and Infection, 149, e87.
Shah, S., Akhtar, M., & Qureshi, R. (2023). Reclaiming public spaces amidst COVID-19 pandemic: tactical urbanism as a ‘resilience’ response. Journal of Art Architecture and Built Environment, 6(2), 54-79.
Shelton, S., Nelson, C., Sullivan, M., Wroblewski, K., Mueller, E., & Wolford, T. (2024). Strengthening the us public health lab system: Summary of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) after action review workshop. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 30(5), 710-717.
Singh, S. (2021). Crisis response framework and public policy response. Indian Journal of Public Administration, 67(3), 396-412.
Southworth, F., Chalmers, D., Reedy, G., Amlôt, R., & Skryabina, E. (2024). Organisational learning from the public health response to the COVID-19 pandemic: Findings from a qualitative interview study. Frontiers in Public Health, 12, 1411346.
Sridhar, S., & Rabbani, S. (2021). Pharmaceutical care services provided by pharmacists during COVID-19 pandemic: Perspectives from around the world. Journal of Pharmaceutical Health Services Research, 12(3), 463-468.
Sripad, P., Gottert, A., Abuya, T., Casseus, A., Hossain, S., Agarwal, S., & Warren, C. (2022). Confirming-and testing-bonds of trust: a mixed methods study exploring community health workers’ experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh, Haiti, and Kenya. PLOS Global Public Health, 2(10), e0000595.
Tùng, L. (2022). Relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic and the macroeconomic indicators: evidence from a global analysis. Proceedings of the International Conference on Business Excellence, 16(1), 785-791.
Vainauskienė, V., & Vaitkienė, R. (2022). Challenges to the learning organization in the context of COVID-19 pandemic uncertainty: Creativity-based response. Creativity Studies, 15(2), 332-347.
Welden, L., Chen, C., Willegal-Russ, K., & Kalb, E. (2023). Nurse resiliency and health in practicing nurses before and during COVID-19. JONA: The Journal of Nursing Administration, 53(7/8), 420-428.
Williams, O., Yung, K., & Grépin, K. (2021). The failure of private health services: COVID-19 induced crises in low- and middle-income country (LMIC) health systems. Global Public Health, 16(8-9), 1320-1333.
Yi, F., Woo, J., & Zhang, Q. (2022). Community resilience and COVID-19: A fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis of resilience attributes in 16 countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(1), 474.
Zanjani, Z., Joekar, S., & Omidi, A. (2021). The mental health and job burnout of nurses during the COVID-19 outbreak: Resilience as a mediator. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 15(2), e109925.
Zhang, X., Warner, M., & Meredith, G. (2023). Factors limiting us public health emergency authority during covid‐19. The International Journal of Health Planning and Management, 38(5), 1569-1582.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
.png)
